Ben Macintyre
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Memory is a private library, collected by experience. In its stacks are the happy memories we cherish and revisit, and the slim volumes of recollection we had half-forgotten that return to us as we browse through the present. And in another section of every mental library are the unpleasant memories: the tragedies, the failures, the embarrassments and the traumas. Most of us try not to dwell too long in that part of our personal literature, but we are still drawn there from time to time, despite the pain.
Science is about to change that. New research has discovered that certain “amnesia” drugs can block, dilute and even delete unwanted and unhappy memories. We could become, in effect, the curators of our own memory-libraries, chucking out or sealing up the volumes that distress us, leaving only shelf upon shelf of happy reminiscences.
Memories can now be manipulated. Neurologists have discovered that powerful emotional experiences trigger specific hormonal reactions, making some memories more vivid and painful than others: that is why you remember 9/11, but not what you were doing the day before. Studies at universities in North America, however, have found that the drug Propranolol (originally developed to treat heart disease) can inhibit the stress associated with specific memories, even decades after the events themselves, effectively reducing the pain of recollection.
More remarkable still is the discovery by scientists at New York University that certain memories in rats can be erased entirely. The rats were trained to associate two distinct musical tones with a mild electric shock: when they heard the notes, they braced for the shock. Then some of the rats were given the drug U0126, which induces amnesia, when they heard one of the tones: thereafter, the rats still reacted to the first tone, but did not flinch when they heard the second. The memory of the shock had been expunged. The scenario imagined in the 2004 film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, in which the memory of a failed romance is scientifically erased, is no longer a fantasy.
The research is aimed at treating post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the legacy of pain and misery left on the mind by horrific experiences; yet the discovery that memory may be tweaked and modified carries much wider implications not only for medicine, but for the nature of humanity itself.
There is already an Orwellian term for such treatment – “therapeutic forgetting”. If we can manage and dilute memory after serious trauma, will science not also be used to rub out or water down other painful memories: divorce, bereavement, the shock of a terrorist attack or even what you did at the office party?
Plastic surgery was also pioneered to tackle a serious medical problem, the horrendous facial injuries suffered by combatants in the First World War, but has since become an accepted technique to improve on nature and hold back age. Cosmetic neurology may be next. Don’t like the shape of your remembrance of things past? Give your memory a nip and tuck.
Our memories – the bad, the good, the quotidian – are what define our personalities. Tinker with the emotional tonalities of remembered events, and we interfere with our very natures. Distress, anxiety and sorrow are the foundations of empathy, for without recalling unhappiness, how could we understand it in others? Memory is a part of evolution: the fittest memories survived because they remembered that the creature with the big teeth in the grass should be avoided.
Traumatised soldiers returning from the battlefield could be given drugs to make the memory more comfortable one day. But if a pill can numb the guilt and horror of conflict, then the truly horrific nature of war could be obscured: soldiers are no longer human beings but fighting drones, able to sluice away the bloody memories with pharmaceutical forgetfulness.
If the memory of terrible things could be dulled, the world might be more contented, but less real. Holocaust survivors might have lived happier lives had they been able to erase the dreadful memories, but our understanding of that great evil would be immeasurably lessened: their memories are our conscience.
Should entire groups of people self-medicate against memory? The victims of Hurricane Katrina, for example, or the population of war-torn Afghanistan? That could take the sting out of memory, but it would also blunt the point of history.
The scientists behind the amnesia drug research argue that since we already use chemicals to treat schizophrenia, stress and depression, then drugs to tackle painful and debilitating memories are the next logical step. There is nothing noble, they say, in the horrible, destructive cycle of post traumatic stress.
The newfound chemistry of remembrance and forgetting has the potential to shape humanity in the most profound ways, yet regulators have not even addressed the issue of whether such drugs could be legally used by individuals to reorder and revalue their memories without a pressing medical reason.
Some ravaged lives will surely be improved by easing painful memories, but most would be diminished. As anyone knows who has observed the slow, cruel larceny of Alzheimer’s disease, the erosion of the sad memories is just as tragic as the elimination of the joyful ones.
Jane Austen wrote that “if any faculty of our nature may be called more wonderful that the rest, it is memory. . . the memory is sometimes so retentive, so serviceable, so obedient; at others, so bewildered and so weak; and at others again, so tyrannic, so beyond control.”
The tyranny of memory should be endured, even embraced. To do otherwise is to beckon the final forgetting a little closer.

Ben Macintyre is Writer at Large for The Times and contributes a regular Friday column. His earlier roles at The Times include being editor of the Weekend Review, parliamentary sketchwriter and bureau chief in Washington and Paris. He has also published a number of historical non-fiction books
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I would hate to disagree with those who suffer from such horrors as have been mentioned. To deny them any peace that is available is a callous infliction of the will of a faceless majority on the individual. For the benefit of the masses and the detriment of the individual. What worries me is the frightening likelihood of it's cosmetic and aesthetic use. Not even the most well intentioned thing is too well intentioned to be turned to misuse.
Also it seems a shame to me that so much time and effort has to be spent in order to relieve people of the horrors that still haunt them because too few people are willing to make the effort to live peacfully alongside one another. And perhaps it is even more distressing that such occurences are so commonplace for that which causes them to be ignored and not discussed in both the article and the comments.
David, Cwmbran, Wales
Wow. Kind of gives "brainwashing" a whole new meaning, doesn't it? I can't wait until this gets out on the market and becomes as common as Prozac...I'll yank my kids from public school, start homeschooling, and move somewhere waaayyy up in the mountians to escape the invasion of the brainwashed Pollyanna zombie people....
Marika, Lexington, KY, USA
Clearly, Mr. Macintyre has never suffered from Post Traumatic Shock Disorder.
Mike Allen, Newcastle,
Must we let people fall to their deaths if we can prevent it, so that we might be reminded of the existence of gravity?
The article says re holocaust survivors: "our understanding of that great evil would be immeasurably lessened [if survivors erased their bad memories]: their memories are our conscience."
Well and good if you're not a holocaust survivor.
My girlfriend survived the Cultural Revolution (Mao killed 100 million of his citizens). She should remember her rape, torture, brainwashing and imprisonment, her witnessing of executions, for our benefit? To this day she trusts no one, likes to take walks only at night so she can't be seen; she is irrationally suspicious of everything and everyone and always will be. In short, her life has been destroyed. She was sacrificed for Mao; now she should be sacrificed for the rest of us? I don't think so. I would do anything to give her her life back. Before you spout off, get to know someone like this. They're everywhere.
Michael, New York, New York
Used in the proper medical setting this type of medication could restore functional life to those who suffer with severe Post traumatic Stress Disorder. The events of our pasts can debilitate and ruin our lives and render some incapable of engaging in any form of a healthy relationship. To deny this type of treatment option because of some kind of sanctimonious or elitist notion about the value of our memories is very narrow sighted.
Jimmy Fox, Bellingham , USE
I am probably one of the best-placed people to comment on this subject. I lost two years of my memories, simply by contracting a brain disease. Am I glad that I lost all my bad memories? NO. Your experiences and memories make you who you are, and if you wake up one day and have lost that time, then who are you? It is frightening to have to re-discover yourself, to rely on photographs and other people's memories. Even wiping out your own memories does not mean that other people's will be wiped out too. I am lucky in that I actually woke up, and only lost two years, whereas other people have lost their all their memories. Since my memory loss I have of course had bad experiences, I have bad memories from these experiences, but would I wipe them out? To me it seems just as ridiculous as wiping out good memories. Before anyone even thinks about doing this, they should speak to someone like me and understand the consequences of their actions. Once they're gone they won't come back
Stephanie, London,
Recall of seriously traumatic events can be and usually is debilitating ,giving rise to PTSD.
The Rewind Technique (see www.beatptsd.com)allows this recall to become a memory! Memories are under voluntary control and as such can be recalled at will and dismissed at will.
No one in their right mind would want their memories erased even if they are bad.
What traumatized people want is to not to be tormented by involuntary recall.
david muss, BIRMINGHAM, UK
Memories do indeed make us who we are. They also enable us to prevent ourselves from possibly making mistakes a second time around. People become wise by learning from their mistakes, mistakes are associated with memories of that mistake first time round, good or bad. If we have erased the memory we have erased the lesson learned. What doesn't kill you should only make you stronger and help you to be thankful for the good things you have experienced and have in your life. Don't erase what could be invaluable to learn from.
Stella C, Milton Keynes, Bucks
An interesting use of this therapy would be the 'deletion' of memories relating to criminal or dishonest actions and their subsequent non-disclosure during polygraph interrogation.
A subject could truthfully respond to questioning, contradicting fact, and no-one (including themselves) would be the wiser.
Bruce Haig, Frankfurt am Main,
More wretched dangerous pseudo psychological claptrap.
the duke of putney, dorset, uk
To SM Sterling who says that people should be allowed to use the drug if they so wish as it has no impact on people who shun it- this is absurd. A person who commits a violent act and spends time in prison could in principle use the drug to forget the the trauma of incarceration. In doing so they will erase the emotional deterence and also maybe the guilt of their criminal act leading to a similar act to be repeated. Please think a bit deeper and realise that our thoughts and mind do impinge on other peoples lives.
jack, london, uk
According to Eriksonâs theory of psychosocial development, life experiences build memories. These memories are the integral parts of an individualâs identity. Removal of memories isnât really something one should take lightly; a so called simple tweak could mean the difference between having a loving caring personality to a horrendous one it could also change an individual from being a giving human to becoming a selfish individual. Personal experience dictates that one slight change in memory is not something which I would wish to purchase or would advise anyone to rush into regardless of the memory good or bad.
Leon Earlington, UK
Leon Earlington, Bedfordshire, UK, United Kingdom
ditto
Emanuele, Milan,
ditto
Emanuele, q,
Who do you suppose is sponsoring this research? Another case of Big Pharma seeking to leverage its past investment in developing a drug for one purpose by exploring its uses for other things - in this case a hyper tension drug that had debilitating side effects in terms of memory loss. The press can usually be counted on to report these cases as positive scientific research. But the use of such free, self-administered techniques such as Emotional Freedom Techniques (a form of emotional acupuncture) for treating PTSD - as used successfully in both Israel & the US - elicits not a single line.
Money talks & big money talks loudest.
Peter, Istanbul, Turkey
Whether people use these drugs is... _their own business_.
Mr. Macintyre, live your own life and leave others to live theirs as they chose.
As Jefferson commented, his neighbors' choices were no concern of his as long as they did not pick his pocket or break his leg.
S.M. Stirling, Santa Fe, NM USA
This is yet another area in which potential authoritarian abuse needs to be resisted. I am doing my best to resist it at present, all the time. Actually the government is continually controlling our memories by what is presented in the media; by what is recorded in the history books. This alone is a very powerful tool and does amount to censorship. The tendency towards the presentation of all publicity in overwhelming PC terms is another assault on memory - the control of what is to be remembered. It is an insidious, ongoing business which undermines identity. Control of oneâs memory is control of oneâs identity. I definitely prefer to remain in control of my own, regardless of who that may inconvenience.
Henry Percy, London, UK
There are far too many people - already - who are running our lives - to our detriment.
The worst aspect of this is that most people seem to be blithely unaware of it.
Like the current, dangerous fad for Botox, this could be the next fashion.
The thought fills me with horror.. and without the horror, why would I object?
There are some very nasty people out there. They would, (If they could), control large sections of the population even more than religions control them now, even more than social security controls them now; even more than war, famine and poverty control them now.
Don't let us encourage them, eh?
Charlotte Peters Rock, Knutsford, England
People always tell us to learn from the past. If we can delete our memory, how can we learn?
Stephanie, Hong Kong, China
I don't think it's true that one has to summon up a painful memory, complete with flinching, in order to empathise. Nor do I think it's necessary to be terrified by an atrocity in order to be aware that it is morally wrong; the phrase "the truly horrific nature of war could be obscured" implies that people who recoil involuntarily are privy to some deeper truth than those with calmer and more rational reactions - but why does that follow? I fail to see why panic should be considered enlightening.
Felix, Nottingham,
Yes, the tyranny of memory must be embraced. It's a ledger of our mistakes, collective and individual, and could well prevent history from repeating itself.
An excellent article.
Suganthy Krishnamachari, Chennai, INDIA