Mark Henderson, Science Editor of The Times
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When Warren Thomas, the director of Lincoln Park Zoo in Oklahoma City, approached Tusko the elephant with a syringe full of LSD in 1962, he thought that he was about to make a major contribution to science.
Within a few moments of being injected, Tusko began trumpeting furiously, before keeling over as if he had been shot. An hour later, he was dead. “It appears that the elephant is highly sensitive to the effects of LSD,” Thomas and his colleagues concluded.
Some 35 years after his demise, Tusko’s role in the history of science has been recognised with first place in a list of the ten wackiest experiments of all time, compiled for New Scientist magazine.
He has also inspired the list’s author, Alex Boese, to assemble many more strange studies in a newly-published book, Elephants on Acid and Other Bizarre Experiments.
“I started collecting examples of bizarre experiments years ago while in graduate school studying the history of science,” Mr Boese said. “I confess I had no profound intellectual motive; I simply found them fascinating.
“They filled me with disbelief, astonishment, disgust and — best of all – laughter. With hindsight, perhaps there is a deeper message. These experiments are not the work of cranks. All were performed by honest, hardworking scientists who were not prepared to accept common-sense explanations of how the world works.
“Sometimes such single-mindedness leads to brilliant discoveries. At other times it can end up closer to madness. Unfortunately, there’s no way of knowing in advance where the journey will lead.”
The Top Ten
1) Elephants on Acid
A curiosity-led experiment from the 1960s, in which Warren Thomas decided to inject an elephant named Tusko with 297 milligrams of LSD — about 3,000 times the typical human dose — to see what would happen. The idea was to determine whether the hallucinogenic drug could induce musth — the state of temporary madness in which male elephants become aggressive.
The result was a public relations disaster: Tusko died. The scientists claimed in their defence that they had not expected this to happen — two of them had taken plenty of acid themselves, they said.
2) Terror in the Skies
Another 1960s experiment, in which ten soldiers on a training flight were told by the pilot that the aircraft was disabled, and about to ditch in the ocean. They were then required to fill in insurance forms before the crash — ostensibly so the Army was not financially liable for any deaths or injuries.
They were actually unwitting participants in an experiment: the plane was not crippled at all. It revealed that fear of imminent death indeed causes soldiers to make more mistakes than usual when filling in forms.
3) Tickling
In the 1930s Clarence Yeuba, a Professor of Psychology at Antioch College in Ohio, formed the hypothesis that people learn to laugh when tickled, and that the response is not innate. He tested it on his son — the family was forbidden from laughing in relation to tickling when he was present.
Leuba’s wife, however, was caught some months later bouncing the boy on her knee while laughing and saying: “Bouncy, bouncy.” By the time the boy was seven, he was laughing when tickled — but that did not stop Leuba trying the experiment again on his sister.
4) Headless rats and painted faces
In 1924 Carney Landis, of the University of Minnesota, set out to investigate facial expressions of disgust. To exaggerate expressions, he drew lines on volunteers’ faces with burnt cork, before asking them to smell ammonia, listen to jazz, look at pornography or place their hands in a bucket of frogs.
He then asked each volunteer to decapitate a white rat. While all hesitated, and some swore or cried, most agreed to do so — showing the ease with which most people bow to authority. The pictures, however, look quite bizarre. “They look like members of a strange cult preparing to offer a sacrifice to the Great God of the Experiment,” Mr Boese wrote.
5) Raising the dead
Robert Cornish, of the University of California at Berkeley, believed in the 1930s that he had perfected a way of raising the dead. He experimented by placing corpses on a see-saw to circulate the blood, while injecting adrenalin and anticoagulants.
After apparently successful experiments on strangled dogs, he found a condemned prisoner, Thomas McMonigle, who was prepared to become a human guinea pig. The state of California, however, refused permission, for fear that it would have to release McMonigle if the technique worked.
6) Slumber learning
In 1942 Lawrence LeShan, of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, attempted subliminally to influence boys into stopping biting their fingernails. While they were asleep, he played them a record of a voice saying: “My fingernails taste terribly bitter.” When the record player broke down, he stood in the dormitory repeating the phrase himself.
It seemed to work: by the end of the summer, 40 per cent of the boys had stopped biting their nails. Mr Boese, however, has another explanation: "'If I stop biting my nails,’ they probably thought, ‘the strange man will go away.’”
7) Turkey turn-ons
Martin Schein and Edgar Hale, of Pennsylvania State University, devoted themselves to studying the sexual behaviour of turkeys in the 1960s, and discovered that the birds are not choosy. Taking a model of a female turkey, they progressively removed body parts until the males lost interest.
Even when all that remained was a head on a stick, the male turkeys remained turned on.
8) Two-headed dogs
Vladimir Demikhov, a surgeon from the Soviet Union, revealed his surgical creation of a two-headed dog in 1954. The head of a puppy had been grafted onto the neck of an adult German shepherd. The second head would lap at milk, even though it did not need nourishment — and though the milk then dribbled down the neck from its disconnected oesophagus. Both animals soon died because of tissue rejection — but that did not stop Demikhov from creating 19 more over the next 15 years.
9) The vomit-drinking doctor
Stubbins Ffirth, a doctor training in Philadelphia during the 1800s, formed the hypothesis that yellow fever was not an infectious disease, and proceeded to test it on himself. He first poured infected vomit into open wounds, then drank the vomit. He did not fall ill — but not because yellow fever is not infectious. It was later discovered that it must be injected directly into the bloodstream, typically through the bite of a mosquito.
10) Eyes wide open
In 1960 Ian Oswald, of the University of Edinburgh, sought to test extreme conditions for falling asleep. He taped open volunteers’ eyes, while placing a bank of flashing lights 50cm in front of them, and attached electrodes to their legs that administered electric shocks. He also blasted very loud music into their ears.
All three subjects were able to fall asleep within 12 minutes. Oswald speculated that the key was the monotonous and regular nature of the stimuli.

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If I'm not mistaken LSD acts on the brain and is not affected by body mass. In fact I do believe elephants have a smaller brain mass than humans, so they more than cooked that elephants mind with that much LSD.
John, Dallas,
Some people have all the fun!!!
Dale Dixon, Ballarat, Australia
I think that they should have atleast adminstered the test soberly because with the ratio of the dosage that they had specified they were thinking the elephant was about 180000 lbs. While the biggest elephant ever recorded is 24000 lbs. obviously these scientists should have done some more calculations before adminstering the lsd
John, Winnipeg,
Frank could have a point - "black sabbeth" perhaps? Anyway, I am filled with disgust on the LSD experiment!
Alberto, Tshwane, Gauteng / South Africa
I like all elephants, and think they like me too. If some scientist wants to inject an elephant with massive amounts of LSD and other drugs I ask you is this necessary? I mean, sure the scientist is adding to the general knowledge of man and that can't be a bad thing. Or is it?
How on earth could spazzing out an elephant on LSD be constructive? The after affects of killing it with downers is pretty clearly needed, for a multi ton animal, crazy on massive amounts of acid, surely poses a threat to itself as well as to the 'scientists' around it. This is, surely, an experiment that went badly wrong, and as such should not be in an editorial for weird and wacky experiments. The picture above seems to dignify the torture of a noble and intelligent animal. Are there any sicker images you can parade as 'bizarre'? Mark, you are the weakest link. Good bye.
Justin, Nr. Lincoln, UK
Saw this article mentioned on www.SubliminalMessags.Com and thought it to be very interesting!
It reminded me that I was once asked by a door to door traveling physician to take off all of my clothes and submit to a doorstep momogram test. I should have known it was a trick.
Yello Booster, Cleveland, OH
I was in an experiment once....they promised there'd be cake. Turns out the cake was a lie.
Jeff, Chicago, IL
Goodness! In my country we have recently bagan experiments in which our cattle are forced to watch the telly 24 hours per day.
The cows are sacred yes! But many of them have bagan to want to 'hog' the TV remote, and several have demanded that giant remotes, the size of a Peter Andre Johnson, be placed in their stalls so that they can stomp on it gleefully.
And they are demanding that beer and pinoqachole be added to their feed before the six o'clock news.
We may have to ban television from all the cow population soon!
Pushtab, Uttar Daspare, IN
to the nay sayer know it all.
A single man discovered h pylori, the bacteria responsible for most ulcers. No one believed him until he ingested it and got ulcer disease. Nobel prize.
A study of 10 people can EASILY prove a statistical relationship, depending on the study. If testing the effects of cyanide, for example, you really only need a control, and the subject.
Yes, we've gotten better at study design, but you have not profited from that knowledge.
Chris, gainesville, Florida
im thinking portals, too
ism, nome,
The book and article is about wacky experiments, not horrific ones. Get off your high horse, already.
PW, Anytown, USA
RE: John, New York, NY
I HOPE you mean Jazz and Pornography.
Mark, Boulder, CO
I'm simply amused that two of my favorite activities appear in a list of four intended to elicit "disgust".
John, New York, NY
3000 times the normal dose and a fistful of sedatives? Where do I sign up??? :o)
Barry, Dublin, Eire 32
The writer missed probaly the most heinous experiment of all time, outside those conducted in Nazi Germany. It was the infamous Tuskegee Experiment. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_experiment
which was memorialized in a play and movie called Miss Evers' Boys. The study--of the course of syphilis--was done on poor illiterate blacks and started when there were no truly effective cures for syphilis. During the study, penicillin was invented and offered an immediate cure. The study should have been promptly closed with all the participants given penicillin. It was not.
A.U. Daniels, Basel, Switzerland
Was the Elephant on LSD study funded through the US Military?
This is about the time we became involved with the war in Indo China, and elephants were important to VC's logistics. Eventually, elephants were declared Military Combatants and fired upon.
Had the LSD Dose been properly calculated and had it confirmed the hypothesis, the elephant wold have been temporarily transformed into a bio-weapon.
Michael LaPoint, Boston, MA
Black Mesa was the weirdest of them all. Although Portal also ranks highly.
Jagdish, Anytown, USA
Interestingly though the name "Boese" probably is German, where the word means "evil".
Karl Siegemund, Rum, Austria
I would like to turn attention to Dr. Wilson Greatbatch, the inventor of pacemaker. For a long time, he was experimenting with hart transplantations on dogs, and also was building artificial harts, implanting them in dogs, and observing how long the dogs would survive. A countless number of dogs died in his shed as a result of those experiments. Most (if not all of) his neighbors thought he was completely insane.
Today, more than 600.000 pacemakers are implanted a year - countless human lives have been saved. If the whole idea had failed, I can easily see that he might have been highly ranked on this list. But the idea worked!
Branimir, Zagreb, Croatia
the author's name is ALEX BOESE, not Boase!
J Boese, Kilmarnock, VA, USA
Tusko's tormentors made an elephantine mistake in scaling up the LSD dose by a factor of 3,000. An elephant has about 70 to 100 times the bodyweight of a human, and its brain only has about 5 times the mass of a human brain. If the 'scientists' had started with 5 times the human dose Tusko should have survived and might have gone on to star in a prog-rock band in the 70s.
Frank Upton, Solihull,
I understand that the process isn't always pretty, but there appears to be a fine line between "science" and sadism.
B.K.B. Fitzgerald, Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.A.
As you can see, all of these "experiments" were conducts many years ago. Many improvements have been made in conducting expriements these days. A sample with only 10 soliders will certainly draw intensive questions in experiment design, not to mention drinking vomit or observing the behavior of one bady.
Kai, Boston, US
This doesn't tell the full story of what happened to Tusko.
After he became agitated the scientists gave him a massive dose of a sedative to calm him down.
It's not clear whether the LSD or the sedative killed him. Some think it's more likely to be the latter since it's pretty much impossible for a human to fatally overdose on LSD. Then again, different species react to substances in different ways.
Ed W, London,
It is amazing what humans are capable of in the name of science and religion!
Tortue, Hong Kong,
Why are peoples comments always not a representation of an article. Mr Boarse said "they filled me with disbelief, astonishment, disgust and â best of all â laughter" hence not all of what he found made him laugh, and i am sure he didnt select the examples given. Can people learn to read articles properly before making unecessary derogatory comments about people
Rich, Geneva,
The fact of the matter is that most HUMANS wouldn't die from 3,000 times the average dose of LSD. LSD is very curious in this regard. By mass it is one of the most psychoactive compounds known to man, and yet it is very very difficult to overdose on it.
Peter, Los Angeles, CA
In response to Astrid, What Mr Boase said was
âThey filled me with disbelief, astonishment, disgust and â best of all â laughter."
He was talking about the weird experiments in general not that the elephant on acid experiment made him laugh. I'm quite sure that to the vast majority of us killing an elephant by drugs overdose would fall into the "disgust" part of Mr Boase's statement.
Bob Haidong, Lancashire, UK
Most of these experiments weren't science at all - they seem to be the uninformed dabblings of the scientificall illiterate. As to the traetment of Tusko - two of them had taken plenty of acid themselves - that explains the imbecility then.
Bill Q, Derby,
No mention of bacon at all :-)
Mark M, Southend on Sea, Essex
If the irreverent Warren Thomas psychologically tortured and killed an elephant in India (a nation that reveres elephants), he would have been beaten to death in minutes. Warren Thomas was a reprobate.
Brien Comerford, Glenview, United States
Scientists should share the same fate as their subjects....
tony, long beach, usa
Mr Boase said it filled him with laughter - I myself fail to see the fun with this experiment. I sincerly hope that Mr Warren Thomas was convicted of animal cruelty.
Astrid Ruqsapram, Bangkok, Thailand
More of interest, I imagine, would be Tusko's reaction to being injected with 3000 times more LSD than a human can handle.
Richard Roylance, Tokyo, Japan